Video Game Review Bloodborne Essay Example

Video Game Review Bloodborne Essay My favourite game from the Souls-Bourne series is Bloodborne. It was created by Hidetaka Miyazaki who oversaw the full development of the game and was the one behind a lot of its ideas. It was a difficult undertaking for Miyazaki given From-Software had not made a complete title game in a style like this before. It is a game with, Victorian gothic architecture and clothing for all the locations. The game features your character coming to a city that has been affected by a blood plague that has begun to turn the inhabitants of the city into mindless were-wolves. The people of this land have used blood to heal but also to strengthen warriors who would fight the beasts. That is the story the opening cut-scene tells you. The From-Software games have always had a unique way of storytelling.The lore of the world is hidden in the descriptions of different weapons and outfits as the story we are given is just a small part of the world. Although It seems that it is just a typical story of a hero who journeys to a land and saves everyone he meets, but that is truly not the case with this game. The story has more layers to it than what is first thought to have had as it begins to show that there is a growing presence of the Great Ones, the Lovecraftian beings that remain a threat for a lot of the game until you finally defeat one. We will write a custom essay sample on Video Game Review Bloodborne specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Video Game Review Bloodborne specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Video Game Review Bloodborne specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The main strategy of the game is the combat system used to fight the Great Ones. It has always been the combat system that could make or break a game. Thankfully Bloodborne has an excellent combat system that differs quite a bit from their other titles as the pace is much faster in this game. Unlike other Souls-Bourne titles instead of holding a large array of weapons, the game sticks to a close and tight knit selection of twenty-six trick weapons that have an ability to change in some way. Take the Saw Clever for example it changes from a close-range weapon with diagonal slashes to a mid-range blade that solely hi

Albert Einstein2 essays

Albert Einstein2 essays Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm. He was raised in Munich, where his family owned a small electrical machinery shop. Though he did not even begin to speak until he was three, he showed a great curiosity of nature and even taught himself Euclidean geometry at the age of 12. Albert despised school life, thinking it dull and boring, so when his family decided to move to Milan, Italy, Einstein took the opportunity to drop out of school, only 15 at the time. After a year with his parents in Milan it became clear to him that he would have to make his own way in the world. He finished secondary school in Arrau, Switzerland, and then enrolled at the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zurich. School there was no less exciting for him than it was before, and Einstein often cut classes, using the time to study physics on his own or practice on his violin. He graduated in 1900, but his professors did not think very highly of him and would not recommend him for a university job . Einstein worked for two years as a tutor and substitute teacher until in 1902 he found a position as an examiner in the Swiss patent office in Bern. In 1903 he married a fellow classmate at the polytechnic, Mileva Maric. They later divorced after having two sons, and Einstein remarried. Though Albert had written other papers, the one he became most famous for was called, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, which explained a theory that became known as the special theory of relativity. This was Einsteins third major paper to date, and was published in 1905. Natural philosophers had been trying to understand the nature of matter and radiation since the time of Sir Isaac Newton. Einstein had been considering the problem for over ten years when he realized that lay not in a theory of matter but one of measurement. The crux of his special theory or relativity was that all measurements of time and space depe ...

How to Use the Irregular French Verb Recevoir

How to Use the Irregular French Verb Recevoir The French verb recevoir (pronounced ruh-say-vwah) is one of the more challenging to learn because its highly irregular once you get into the past tense and other conjugations. Translated as to receive or to get, this verb is so irregular that it doesnt fit in any pattern.   Usage Recevoir is whats commonly known in French as an irregular ir- verb. These verbs dont follow the regular patterns of conjugation, so students have to memorize them individually. Other ir- verbs include:  asseoir, courir, devoir, falloir, mourir, pleuvoir, pouvoir, recevoir, savoir, tenir, valoir, venir, voir  and  vouloir. Verbs that end in -cevoir are conjugated the same way. These include: apercevoir   to catch sight of, to foreseeconcevoir  Ã‚  to conceivedà ©cevoir  Ã‚  to disappointpercevoir  Ã‚  to perceiverecevoir  Ã‚  to receive Uses and Expressions The table below includes only simple conjugations of the irregular French -ir verb recevoir. It does not include compound tenses, which include a form of the auxiliary verb avoir and the past participle. recevoir une salaire to get paidrecevoir un prix to be awarded a prize / to be given a prize or awardrecevoir un cadeau to get / receive / be given a giftrecevoir  courrier /  coup de tà ©là ©phone to get mail /  to get a telephone callVeuillez recevoir, Madame, lexpression de mes sentiments les meilleurs  ou  mes salutations distinguà ©es Yours sincerelyrecevoir un coup sur la tà ªte to receive a blow to the headrecevoir  quelquun dà ®ner   to invite someone to dinnerJai à ©tà © mal reà §u. I was made to feel unwelcome.La maison peut recevoir six personnes. The house sleeps six people.Le mà ©decin reà §oit/ne reà §oit pas aujourdhui. The doctor is / isnt seeing patients today.se faire recevoir   to get told offJe nai de conseils recevoir de personne  ! I dont have to take advice from anybody!Elle sait merveilleusement recevoir. Shes a marvelous hostess. / Shes marvelous at entertaining. Simple Conjugations of the Irregular French -ir Verb Recevoir Present Future Imperfect Present Participle je reois recevrai recevais recevant tu reois recevras recevais il reoit recevra recevait nous recevons recevrons recevions vous recevez recevrez receviez ils reoivent recevront recevaient    Pass compos Auxiliary verb avoir Past participle reu Subjunctive Conditional Pass simple Imperfect subjunctive je reoive recevrais reus reusse tu reoives recevrais reus reusses il reoive recevrait reut rect nous recevions recevrions remes reussions vous receviez recevriez retes reussiez ils reoivent recevraient reurent reussent Imperative (tu) reois (nous) recevons (vous) recevez

To What Extent Were Women Victims of National Socialism Essay

To What Extent Were Women Victims of National Socialism - Essay Example The era is also criticised and condemned for confining the role of the women from social, economic and corporate fields to the four walls of their houses, where they were meant to conceive the children of this superior German race, and to serve and soothe their husbands on their return from the jobs and battlefields as well. Kolingsky (1993) submits to state that the woman under Nazi Germany had been assigned the only task of sustaining and maintaining their beauty in order to attract their husbands or lovers for conceiving children. It was not a novel thing for the females, as â€Å"the female bird preens herself for the male, and hatches the egg for him. In return, the male provides the food.† Before embarking upon the topic under analysis, it would be advisable to look into the history of inclusion and exclusion of women in professional activities outside their homes. German Women 1871—1933: The disintegrated Prussian states had launched a long and dedicated struggle in order to turn the dream of united Germany into reality. They had to win three successive battles against Denmark, Austria-Hungary, and France in 1864, 1866 and 1871 respectively in order to accomplish the arduous unification process of the shattered Prussian states under one banner and in one unit. German Iron-Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was determined to make his country as the leader of the world in all aspects. Consequently, he assured the active participation of men and women in various occupations. Bismarck had played the decisive role in the upsurge of the German nation, and Kaiser Wilhelm II turned the country into a tremendous military and economic giant of the entire region for the future years to come. He did not confine the flow of progress to men only; on the contrary, he invited women folk too to step forwards and render their valuable contributions to their nation on the basis of their educational qualifications, experiences, and skills. As a result, w omen started working shoulder to shoulder with the male folk in the health, education and nursing sectors, and even military services of the country too. Imperial Germany, under the Reichstag, promoted an active female role as teachers, nurses, soldiers and political activists (Mahajan, 2002). Although the courageous and dauntless political and strategic policies devised by the then German leadership during 1871 to 1914 turned the country into a marvellous state of Europe, and invited and included all strata of society, including men, women, young and old into nation-building programmes, yet the entire developments made by the political leadership in order to make Germany as unchallenged created rivalries against the constantly rising economy. However, rapid industrialization also invited the high crime rate, urbanization and prostitution etc in its wake. The disquiet caused by these factors was simultaneously exacerbated in Germany by the increasingly vociferous demands of the Germ an women’s movement which emerged most strongly at the turn of the century. (Rowe, 1995)  

User Experience Evaluation for carphone warehouse website Essay

User Experience Evaluation for carphone warehouse website - Essay Example Online payment methods and the use of mobile phone money transfers have further enhanced the capability for conducting business within the internet based business transaction. The utilisation of internet and websites has significantly increased in the 21st century, prompting almost all operations to have an online presence, for global reach. Globalisation of businesses has taken a new trend through the application of internet based applications and resources. Organisations wishing to reach the global markets must have websites which provide information to clients regarding the company products which are available. There number of individuals utilising websites for different activities other than business, has increased immensely. When undertaking marketing strategies through the internet, all internet users become potential clients. This makes the utilisation of internet based business marketing become relatively popular and increasingly attractive among many organisations involved in selling different wares. Undertaking online business requires the creation of a website in which the products are presented and which enables customers to interact with the sales personnel. Online businesses commonly take different fronts in the presentation of the information to the customers. The aspect taken by the business seeks to target specific market and customers based on the internet utilisation. Many of the common forms include websites, online stores, blogs and social media accounts. Currently many businesses undertake activities on several of these fronts in order to maximise the number of customers who can be reached by the business online activities. The utilisation of different fronts seeks to ensure that the different customers can reach the business through approaches which they easily understand. The utilisation of a website in conduction online business could present several

Impacts of Amalgamations and Takeovers

Impacts of Amalgamations and Takeovers Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1. Introduction Investigators have been analyzing amalgamations and takeovers in the context of their characteristics and the impact on the development of both the entities over the past several years. In actuality, Weston et al. (2004) opine that the experts and researchers in the field have provided a large quantity of records related to the topic. There are many reasons why companies follow development policies related to amalgamations and takeovers. This permits rapid acceleration in addition to having a quick and instant approach to markets, both local and international. It is also likely to touch renowned brands, apply knowledge and skill, and widen the dimension and extent without losing time. In the sphere related to real estate, a participant (real estate firm) may want to promote a mutual organization for funding ventures on an individual basis. It may also consider entering into a joint venture with a construction enterprise in the domestic market so as to execute the venture as per assur ed measurements and highlighted conditions as stated by Jensen (2006). Clients are reassured when they involve themselves with big enterprises, which have a great degree of brand reputation and remembrance. During these times, they articulate their backing, not merely as clients but also as financers as they buy stakes so as to invest money in the enterprise. It also possible for a company to advance by augmenting returns or managing expenses which in turn can be attained by reorganizing and reconfiguring finances apart from using creative methods and reengineering. Some enterprises may also purchase brands, goods, and utilities to expand the goods portfolio of the enterprise. The capability of an enterprise to undertake a development policy by reallocating its resources in creating different facets of its presence was maintained by Hogarty (2000). This could be denoted by its production unit, RD, and through creating and promoting its brands and setting up more projects in parallel or varied spheres. Firms may also purchase extant enterprises or amalgamate with others to attain their objectives. Amalgamations and takeovers assist in accelerating development as the roles pertaining to infrastructure, branding, and manufacturing are clearly set up. Superior mediums which endorse development comprise of contracts, treaties, and agreements for varied ventures for a pre-determined time. All across the world, international corporates and enterprises are entering into purchases of and amalgamations with new firms, forming joint ventures and such equivalent associations on a common basis. Nearly fifty percent of the contracts pertaining to amalgamations and takeovers in India have been initiated by global enterprises. In 2005 alone, India witnessed global contracts of around 58 percent, a number which was double compared to Japans agreements at 21 percent. Internationally, amalgamations and takeovers entail dogmatic frameworks particular to a specific nation and the labor unions of the enterprises. Post the 1990s, economic revolutions have been occurring globally and this has seen a growing attraction for amalgamations and takeovers. The financial segment witnessed a newness which saw modifications being made to possession and trade regulations, an increase in the disposable earnings and as a result, the capacity to discover newer marketplaces and newer chances. Firms are now fully utilizing the reduced interest rates and cost of capital. This has assisted several enterprises in broadening their scope of operations at the domestic and global levels through partnerships, associations, amalgamations, and takeovers. Additionally, the presence of many global media enterprises which publish information pertaining to contracts and partnerships on a large extent-particularly in segments related to production, cars, retail and others. On the other hand, it is extremely crucial for companies to ensure specific advisory metrics before they perform their functions related to amalgamations and takeovers, especially in huge markets which have not been discovered. Amalgamations and takeovers also have the ability to shift the stakeholder worth affirmatively or adversely, which may result in a scenario, which eats away into the prosperity. When local takeovers in addition to global amalgamations get transformed into deficit-making and zero-worth developing patterns, all of these experience impediments. When stakeholders are not going to benefit from such projects, the costs of shares decline and thus, such agreements must consider all the primary essentials before opting for the linked choices. The influence of amalgamations and takeovers may be favorable or harmful to the development and this may take a long time and also be extremely costly for a total revival from an impediment. The existing segment also highlights the investigations and examinations undertaken on the topic by analysts. One needs to have sufficient data evaluation and also conduct hypothetical tests while assessing the influence of amalgamations and takeovers. Adequate links should also be deduced to comprehend the reason and impact correlations in amalgamations and takeovers in context to the criteria such as development of trade, stakeholder worth, productivity, and general performance. As the current study is linked to the influence of international amalgamations and takeovers, it is crucial to analyze the global amalgamations. Global partners who function from India while being based in the European Union framework have been examined depending on specific extant data. Additionally, domestic amalgamations and takeovers have also been analyzed. 2.2. Theoretical Background: Mergers Acquisitions (MAs) 2.2.1. Definition Amalgamations and takeovers can be superiorly comprehended as development polices to enhance the income of the enterprise and also, its capital foundation. Sometimes, for two enterprises, with similar or dissimilar trade functions, to amalgamate on specific ranks is a superior trade choice. An amalgamation of this type assists in imparting a blend of experience and finances. A commercial amalgamation of this type functions as a solitary body between edifying impacts and worth values of a commercial amalgamation and takeover (Jensen and Ruback, 2003). Though the phrases ‘amalgamations and ‘takeovers are frequently employed collectively, they are two extremely varied procedures. Amalgamations describe the merging of two different enterprises into a single entity. The two enterprises join each other, and shift all their resources and functions into a new one. This procedure includes the merging of all types of resources-employees, manufacturing facilities, and functions into the new entity that is shaped. The new entity shaped out of this has its individual distinctiveness, edifying representation, and groups of convictions. It is pointless to state that they are possessed by both the parties which share their resources to develop the new identity (Huang and Walkling, 2007). A takeover is considered as the purchasing-out procedure of an enterprise by another with the goal to stimulate management of its assets, investments, and functions. Takeovers occur when a firm purchases a major share of another firms stakes, assets, and liabilities (Weston et al., 2004). Firms experience a supplementary benefit when this occurs as they get the management apart from the functioning assets, in contrast to when they purchase merely the stakes, in which scenario they have to only compete with the other shareholders. Purchasing assets includes more expenses and offers an extensive capital foundation (Singal, 2006). Now let us consider acquisitions. This phrase also has been employed for many perspectives and is understood also. Takeover is a vague expression and though it may denote a context similar to acquisitions; the two are actually varied types of trade agreements (Jensen, 2006). A takeover is when a purchase is conducted without acquiesce or permission of the ente rprise being taken over. Takeovers come with an adverse action that entails the attaining of another firm with the intent to ‘manage it. When an enterprise desires to take over another firm, it tries to purchase all its shareholders. Takeovers are the ones which do not have the approval of the firm being purchased and they are often nearly undertaken as a hostile proposal. This now clearly explains the different expressions and implications attached to amalgamations, acquisitions, takeovers, partnerships, and associations and how their context is based in the situation in which they are being applied. 2.2.2. Types of Mergers Acquisitions Mergers can occur at parallel, perpendicular, or   multinational levels. Each kind of amalgamation has not only its own typical characteristics but also a distinct impact on the work processes and trade functions. Horizontal Mergers When two enterprises or enterprises that have parallel trades, which amalgamate to develop an entirely novel trade enterprise, it is known as a parallel merger. The enterprises which enter into a parallel amalgamation combine their assets as individual enterprises to shape a novel entity. These enterprises are thus capable of making a more robust enterprise which has a wider capital base and greater resources. The rationale behind this is to acquire a larger market share and become a dominant force in the market (Shleifer and Vishny, 2009). Such parallel amalgamations provide several benefits. They enable larger presence and greater range in addition to optimal performance ability to the novel entity. The two previously distinct entities now have the benefit of augmented resources capable of executing procedures in a superior method to ensure consistent supply of goods, which are of much better quality (Mitchell and Mulherin, 2006). Even in India there are a few instances of parallel amalgamations, for instance, the amalgamation between Indian carriers which occurred between Lufthansa and Swiss International apart from Air France and KLM (Bottazzi et al., 2001). The United Kingdom (UK) has witnessed several parallel amalgamations. In reality, the results of several investigations have depicted that nearly 60 percent of all amalgamation agreements which have occurred post-2001 have been parallel amalgamations (Firth, 2000). The same notion is also put forth by Berndt (2001). He also states that most of the amalgamations which happened post-deregulation and liberalization of the economy were parallel in character. Another instance of a parallel amalgamation like the one of Birla Cement and Larsen Toubro (LT) is related to the cement sector. Additionally, the amalgamation of Kingfisher Airlines and Air Deccan in addition to the one between Jet Airways and Air Sahara depict parallel amalgamations in the airlines sector. The Tatas and the Birlas are two huge corporate entities, which have amalgamated in the telecommunications sector. Vertical Mergers A perpendicular amalgamation is one in which enterprises which are elements in a supply chain or which function as utility suppliers or subsidies in the equivalent type of trade resolve to become one entity. It is noticed that such amalgamations occur when firms resolve to augment their forte in the supply aspect (Agrawal et al., 2002). Perpendicular amalgamations manage to keep rivals away by maintaining stress and managing their supply firms. The perpendicular amalgamation is thus capable of seizing a bigger market share for their goods while the supply group fails to back the goods of other contenders. This plan assists the enterprises to closely react to their clients needs. The element pertaining to the rivals is capable of keeping the prices from rising as the supplies are not reimbursed for (leanmergers.com). Logically, the outcome of this action is an extremely robust management and more revenues as the firms attain an upper hand over their contenders. An instance of perpendicular amalgamation is the one between Ford and Vauxhall who are car producers, who have acquired or purchased automobile enterprises. When Ford purchased Hertz, it was an instance of a perpendicular amalgamation (Loughran and Vijh, 2007). Another example of a perpendicular amalgamation in the telecommunication industry is that of Reliance Communication Ltds purchase of Flag Telecom. Conglomerate Mergers Multinational amalgamations occur amongst two entirely varied enterprises. Such enterprises are participants at distinct degrees and have no equivalents in the good variety, markets, clients, supply chain, or any other criterion. Multinational amalgamations occur amongst such enterprises and a novel association is shaped in addition to new trade contracts. Multinational amalgamations show only one line of power or authorization, which manages the trade functions from a solitary aspect of knowledge, resources, client power, and market experience which guarantee enhanced trade after the multinational trade which occurred before (Asquith et al., 2003). Multinational amalgamations are executed so as to diffuse the dangers over an extensive base and thus avoid any chief impediment for the enterprise (Huang and Walkling, 2007). Financial Acquisitions Monetary attainments are related to the capital and fiscal aspect of trade plans such as Management Buyouts (MBOs) or Leveraged Buyouts (LBOs). Such purchases are not considered in the same context as amalgamations and takeovers (Travos, 2007). 2.2. Stimulus for Amalgamations A large chance to develop the value of mergers is when incentives for the same are anticipated or envisaged by investors. Investigators such as Asquith et al. (2003), Agrawal et al. (2002), and Andrà © et al. (2004) have developed comprehensive data related to the topic pertaining to the incentives for mergers. Mergers must be discouraged by varied reasons such as a superior geographic market, varied economies, superior capabilities and price efficient conduct, widening of the trade, the synergy incorporated, and shifting assets to superior administrators so as to maximize the assets and create superior results, which is the chief objective. It has been proved that mergers and amalgamations are distinctive mediums related to financing in the context of advancement by many investigators. The chief idea or objective behind attaining a profitable investment would be important, particularly if such a concept is considered. In the event of the presence of incentives such as professions or sometimes pure respect improvement occurrences, the possibilities of investments becoming valuable, particularly when there are totally varied incentives for the varied enterprise to triumph and create the line of business. In the event of mergers, at the point when the primary incentive shapes the real advantageous investment, one has to consider the reason why the merger may seem to be priceless. A primary reason may be the lack of the expanding capability to access an unexploited market. One may anticipate a merger so as to achieve these objectives in an effortless manner (Gugler et al., 2003). For a triumphant merger, one should ascertain aspects of robust revenues and synergies. The focus in this matter should also lie on comprehending the incentives for cross-border mergers. It is noticed that dissimilar to domestic mergers for cross-border mergers, one needs to develop an incentive evaluation (Conn et al., 2001). The FDI incentives would resort to internalization, ownership, and position advantages as good instances as mentioned by Moeller et al. (2004). In the context of cross-border mergers, a merger is not likely to have unique ownership advantages. On the other hand, locational advantages may be unclear. Thus, in lieu of purchasing an enterprise in a totally varied geographical market, there are many idea-procedures which happen constantly. The majority of crucial internalization advantages in the instance of cross-border mergers are when products are sold overseas by one nation to another. In the event of the incentives, the OLI framework provides a backdrop for the objective of cross-border mergers, but other factors are also very crucial. It is considered by Chen and Findley (2002) that there is a speed if the retrieval to international markets since those from Greenfield investment cannot be equaled. By the end of the initial ten years of the 21st century, the waves in mergers were analyzed by Danzon et al. (2004). This was later referred to as the ‘Cross Border wave. In contrast to other waves of the century, Evenett explained the trends of the merger wave to be distinct. The utility segment displays how the merger wave comprises of more mergers since specific elements had become components of the ‘Cross Border and more so, with the liberalization effects in addition to the industrial monetary facet, this has additionally intensified privatization. There had to be a greater milieu to assist cross-border mergers. With the chief investment, the incentives had to be linked to the dogmatic surrounding to guarantee an element of the merger wave as depicted by Evenett. For other such grounds, cross-border mergers rise as depicted by Nicholson and McCullough (2002). When the researcher has to handle the theoretical information pertaining to mergers, he tries to present an expansive literature for better understanding. In the context of mergers, a maximized direct policy contention seems to be the most superior and is accountable for the impact of the mergers. A reasonable facet of the investigation discusses how both, markets and clients in the market commence many types of mergers. There has also been a theoretical investigation relating to ideas such as benefit predictions, envisaged variations in the outlays, diversified and varied quantum, in addition to who will eventually gain or lose on account of mergers. These theoretical investigations found their crux in oligopoly markets. Oligopoly markets have been the only crucial markets to utilize the rationale behind mergers opine Conn et al. (2001). So as to manage such market situations, a firm which enjoys a monopoly generally cannot enter into a merger. In a merger of firms, there would be no impact on the market outcomes. In varied production scenarios, the strengths of demand and cost in varied types of oligopoly markets function in different ways while the emphasis of the literature is on studying mergers. 2.3. Cross-Frontier There are several literatures which pertain to theories related to mergers. In reality, none of these literatures actually differentiate that in the management of international merger procedures there must be variations. To achieve cross-border mergers several simultaneous investigations have been undertaken, which complement that there are several literatures dealing with the impacts of these mergers. In terms of globalization, it relies so this is a close expansion and additionally it fulfills international economy apart from varied types of market endeavours to expand international firms of their functions. With consistent methods related to cross-border mergers there is relevant contention for the perusal of â€Å"Indianization† of different segments as described by Ozawa (2002). On account of the absence of attempts in merging administrative techniques, business is the driving aspect behind communication and culture which is why different cross-border mergers were unsucce ssful states Finkelstein (2009). Every type of merger is impacted by these matters instead of cross-border agreements which may be dominant. A further peril is that cross-border contracts are entered into merely to gain benefits. To regard the facets of wondering literature there are subjects and anxieties in context of the methods which incorporate cross-border mergers that have been completed. For cross-border mergers, informative differences are real in the hypothetical model facet as stated by Estrin (2009). In the process of achieving merger benefits, jargon, cultural problems, and official systems are cited as types of primary obstacles. The capabilities to draw attention of skills from other enterprises have been provided to differences useful influence procedures, attainment of communal mergers in firms and the particular speed. Generally, between the links amongst the merging methods of firms informative differences are the source of distrust, to which the triumph can be impeded by the communication matters. There is no clear theoretical model on the other hand, which is related to the impediments which harm the efficiency; despite it being a hypothetical exemplar. In contrast to domestic mergers, for a successful cross-border merger, however, this proves that the closer the facets, the more the obstacles, and these are limited to specific countries since many of th ese obstacles are linked to the regulatory and informative systems prevalent there. According to the origin of enterprises in context to the obstacles, there exist behavioral national variations which need to be expected and depend on the country. By being a source of synergy, informative differences can enhance merger ability in addition to generating benefits as opined by Fama (2009). However, impediments can be built by this, for expanded manner of spreading that is more possible. Instead of any of the domestic mergers participating in cross-border mergers as to gain more useful outlooks for the firms a theoretical exemplar method has been developed by Bjorvatn (2001) for the profit of handling cross-border mergers. By allowing varied mediums of entry in addition to cross-border mergers and for assessing and impacting triumph of cross-border mergers in addition to assessing entry outlays these are the primary variables, he employed to follow Fama (2001). Greenfield investment has been shifted into avenues which are minimally attractive by entry outlays, by methods using cross-border mergers augmented to the degree of revenue. On the other hand, in that market for achieving success as expected facets domestic mergers are regarded to be linked to a rise in the entry expenses. In contrast to the domestic ones in envisaging cross-border mergers success focus on hesitancy which is the outcome in this scenario. While choosing the expected outputs in addition to the entry outlays, the cross-border mergers can also provide access benefits to the distinctive market. In this regard, for both domestic and cross-border mergers, there is present, a theoretical merger literature. In terms of price uncertainty and demand exemplar depending on the matter of the doubt as put forth by Das and Sengupta (2001) both in domestic and cross-border mergers is the correct method. 2.4. Experiential Study MAs are expansion strategies that corporates adopt to increase scale and market share rapidly. They are also used to diversify business interests or acquire technological capability, capital, expertise, or enter new markets. From the business perspective, growth is seen in terms of capital, profits, and shareholder value, operations become more efficient, and business registers improved performance. One of the major benefits of MA transactions is the decrease in costs as resources are shared and processes are streamlined. There have been many instances of companies taking the MA route to save costs like Wells Fargo, whose acquisition of First Interstate in 2006 resulted in cost savings of USD 1 Billion (Jensen and Ruback, 2003). With the restructuring of processes and systems that follow a merger, companies become more efficient and effective as the organizations operational dynamics are realigned and streamlined. The benefits of operating on a large scale, reduction or elimination of wasteful and duplicating processes, the sharing of personnel and other resources all lead to high savings and better performance. The sharing of resources including capital infusion reduces costs and facilitates growth and with open lines of communication, a company can maximize its return on investments. Large-scale operations give companies larger purchasing power and rates for material in bulk can be contracted at far cheaper rates than if supplied to separate companies. MAs deliver value in terms of cost savings, operational efficiencies, large-scale economies, increased market share, diversified product lines, and expertise and technology. Bradley and colleagues (2008) observed that mergers and acquisitions in allied industries also create effective synergies for companies to cut costs and increase returns. Large-scale operations lead to better economical management which gives companies a better chance to compete in the market as they can deliver value to the customer by providing better products and services at cheaper costs. As mentioned earlier, MA deals increase customer base and market share leading to increased revenues and profits. It also helps eliminate unhealthy competition as the new merged enterprise now strives for dominance instead of competing with each other as they did before the merger like the successful Hindalco-Novelis acquisition. Acquiring a company is the quickest and most effective way to enter a new market or increase market share and standing in a current area and location of operations. A company can grow at a faster rate and be market ready virtually by Day One whereas in a Greenfield project, a company might have to strive for years to start production and penetrate the market. A merger also effectively deals with competition as shared resources, expertise and technology coupled with the economies of scale make them competitive and help increase market share.   To be considered successful, mergers and acquisitions either register higher revenues or effectively reduce costs. There has been a lot of research indicating that cost saving rates has been higher than increased revenue figures in MA deals. This is not to say that companies have not grown in terms of revenue. It merely indicates that the rate of growth is not matched by the rate of savings. Operational efficiencies, cost savings, and increased revenue are the three vital objectives of a merger (Jarell and colleagues, 2008). Andrade and colleagues (2001) have researched and studied the success of mergers and acquisitions in India and whether the stated objectives of the MA have been met. Between 2005 and 2008, 26 MA deals were struck with international companies from 13 different countries. Their study revealed that most mergers did not register high profits or top-line growth. Some companies showed negative rates of return and thus the objective of increasing revenues taking the MA route was not successful. Similar results have been recorded in the US although 107 mergers that took place in the US in 2000 showed higher valuations and asset increases. Shareholder value and company valuations in India did not increase as substantially as they did in MA deals that took place in the UK (Anandan and colleagues, 2008). The main motivational drivers for mergers and acquisitions are market dominance and efficiency whilst growth of shareholder wealth though a prime factor is not impacted as heavily and sometimes falls. Research indicates that valuations are less when larger multinational companies pick up controlling stake. 2.5. The Indian Merger Environment This study examines the MA environment in India and also studies previous research on MA analysis of firms in Europe. A major portion of this study is devoted to the understanding of mergers and acquisitions in the EU. With the opening up of economies globally and governments announcing policies to attract FDI and amending rules and regulations for foreign companies to do business, a lot of international MA deals have been witnessed in Europe. A lot of research and information is available on business collaborations in Europe along with the entry of cross-border companies. These studies are detailed and comprehensive accompanied by detailed analysis (Chaudhri, 2002). A lot of mergers in Europe took place at the turn of the millennium. Bridgeman (2000) observes that the UK, France, and Germany have been aggressive in conducting MA deals across the world. International companies have entered their markets with heavy investments and taken over local companies as well but these countries impose restrictions on certain industries and sectors. Luxembourg, for one, however, does not have any restrictions. The European Union Merger Control Act was formulated in September 2000 to assess and evaluate mergers and acquisitions as Europe tried to centralize operations to facilitate transnational transactions. This Act was amended in 2004 and 2008. The objective to bring about uniformity in procedures across Europe for business though noble is contentious as there are many differences between the richer nations and countries not doing as well. There are also policy shifts and business conditions that create issues related to the venture and investors are often forced to rethink their options (Bridgeman). Mani (2005) observes that the nations who are far more economically developed hold the edge in cross-border negotiations. The European Merger Control Act came into force on 21st September, 2000 and further amendments were carried out in 2004 and 2008, but these were only enacted on 21st December 2009 giving the European Commission more discretionary powers (Anandan and colleagues, 2008). Mergers across borders demand that cultural and social uniqueness and sensitivity have to be factored in and this is controlled by the EC Authority. The amendment in 2008 was to create and empower the EC Authority to be able to function as a single window facilitator and ensure social and economic ends were met and local interests protected through each venture (Rice). The European Commission Green Paper (2001) has also highlighted the amendments led by the Act but there still are a lot of problems and procedures that are yet to be sorted out by the Act especially those to do with applications and filings. These gaps and ambiguities create roadblocks in MA transactions especially when international companies merge with domestic companies to create powerful alliances and companies such as the PO-Stena and American Airlines-British Airways in the UK which faced problems due to differences in policies (Bridgeman, 2002). The European Commissions success with the single window facilitation for mergers and acquisitions in Europe is still to be proven. The EC intervention to facilitate and fast-track procedures for mergers in Europe was a noble intention especially the amendments in 2008, which empowered the commission considerably (Basant, 2000). There are about 200 mergers that have benefited from this Act. In fact after the amendments in 2008, mergers increased from 10% to 15%. Thus, the issues before the 2008 Amendments and after need to be studied in conjunction to understand benefits, valuations, and profitability impact on the host nation. Many deals may have been affected adversely or may not have been affected as such due to the expectation of the changes in policy. Deals require clarity, timing, focus, and policy and any variable that could be affected due to ambiguity of policies or lack of trust is bound to affect the merger. The European framework is a structure, which is far more rigid and severe than the USs as illustrated by the GE-Honeywell experience and alliances in aviation. These strictures impact profitability in Europe and investors end up with lower margins. The Merger Control Act however, remains a structure that any nation can learn from and adapt to suit its own conditions and environment. Mehta and Samant (2007) suggest that this Act could be adapted to suit India in the current business environment. A reduction in companies going in for restructuring or strategic alignments has put pressure on countries with extended and cumbersome policies as companies prefer to shif

MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The way in which managers approach the performance of their jobs and the behaviour they display towards subordinate staff is likely to be conditioned by predispositions about people, and human nature and work. Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model (which is discussed in Chapter 12), McGregor put forward two suppositions about human nature and behaviour at work. He argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the manager’s attitudes towards people and assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two suppositions are called Theory X and Theory Y, and are based on polar assumptions about people and work. Theory X assumptions about human nature Theory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional organisations are based, and was widely accepted and practised before the development of the human relations approach. Its assumptions are that: the average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work; most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives; the average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of all; and  motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels. The central principle of Theory X is direction and control through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether the Theory X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of management practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the manager’s position and authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian style of management. Theory Y assumptions about human nature At the other extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consistent with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions are: for most people work is as natural as play or rest; people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed; commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement; given the right conditions, the average worker can learn to accept and to seek responsibility; the capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in the population; the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised; and motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the physiological and security levels. McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in which individuals may satisfy their motivational needs, and in which they achieve their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, administration of salaries and promotions, participation, staff–line relationships, leadership, management development and the managerial team. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managerial strategies Although Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments: Now and again it is necessary to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you can leave them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but try instead to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill. Most people have the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their personal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values mean that people today have wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based more on an accurate understanding of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is not a ‘soft’ option. In practice it is often difficult  to achieve successfully. It can be frustrating and time-consuming, and mistakes will occur. Since 1952 I’ve been stumbling around buildings and running primitive Theory Y departments, divisions, and finally one whole Theory Y company: Avis. In 1962, after thirteen years, Avis had never made a profit (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later the company had grown internationally (not by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive annual profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my application of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was. Robert Townsend6 Demands of the situation The two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural inclination of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands of the situation. Where the job offers a high degree of intrinsic satisfaction or involves a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or where output is difficult to measure in quantitative terms, an informal, participative approach would seem to be more effective. It is more likely to lead to a higher level of staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, such as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for example, then a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate. Use of a Theory X approach However, even if a manager has a basic belief in Theory Y assumptions there may be occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the job itself offers little intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to satisfy higher-level needs, a more dictatorial style of management might work best. Some jobs are designed narrowly, with highly predictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with many complex production processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may be needed if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS The cynic might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what comes naturally to the Japanese. There, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into western language – and which have long been echoed in the progressive areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that caused western companies so much damage in the past: for instance, the argument that to emulate Japan is impossible because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for good business and effective management isn’t simply a product of Japan’s culture. After all, sloppy western habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, new products, training, quality and marketing are hardly cultural – not unless bad business economics are built into the western mentality. Robert Heller 12 THE MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP GRID ® One means of describing and evaluating different styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid ® (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial Grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991 as the Leadership Grid,14 the Grid provides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions: concern for production; concern for people. Concern for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting results or profits. This is represented along the horizontal axis of the Grid. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is represented along the vertical axis of the Grid. Five basic combinations ‘Concern for’ is not how much concern, but indicates the character and strength of assumptions which underlie the manager’s own basic attitudes and style of management. The significant point is ‘how’ the manager expresses concern about production or about people. The four corners and the centre of the Grid provide five basic combinations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Figure 7.1(a)). the impoverished manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low concern for people; the authority–compliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for people; the country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people; the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), moderate concern for production and moderate concern for people; and the team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people. Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and believe in the minimum movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with production or with people. Too much attention to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production. Team management Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation atmosphere and work tempo. Concern for people Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect. Middle-of-the-road management Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Impoverished management Authority–compliance management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organisation membership. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. In Opportunistic management, people adapt and shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an advantage or personal gain. 9+9: Paternalism/maternalism Reward and approval are bestowed to people in return for loyalty and obedience; failure to comply leads to punishment Figure 7.1   The Leadership Grid (Source: Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas – Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.) MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition between people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an instruction or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers believe that a contented staff will undertake what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and maintenance of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to find compromises between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone. Although innovation may be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff. The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of ‘live and let live’ and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style of  management is the ‘dampened pendulum’ with managers swinging between concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing too much the other way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach. Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting to work out solutions with them. These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 different ‘mixtures’ of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary position on the Grid. Two additional grid styles 1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles: opportunism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates. In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the same. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).) In 9+9 paternalistic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted to people in return for loyalty and obedience; and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)). A summary of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1. FRAMEWORK FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR The Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a dichotomy of ‘either/or’, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for. Based on their experience of using the original Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons why it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve production through people. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER The 7-S organisational framework In order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. The  leader creates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people. In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.  Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change. The differences between leadership and management have been applied by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of: strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards reliance on: strategy, structure, systems, leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the ‘soft’ Ss of : style, staff, skills, and shared goals. Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving sufficient mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance. Distinction between management and leadership Based on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating ‘manager’ to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the armed forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having accepted that there are some links between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six ‘fundamental differences’. A manager administers – a leader innovates. A manager maintains – a leader develops. A manager focuses on systems and structure – a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control – a leader inspires trust. A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line – a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right – a leader does the right thing. Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the word ‘manager’ is replaced by ‘administrator’ then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a helpful basis for critical discussion on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires the  ability of leadership CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP THE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACH The first approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that: Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned. There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most features. It is noticeable that ‘individuality’ or ‘originality’ usually features in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, intelligence and belief in one’s actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management Today came up with a list of Britain’s most powerful women in business. A conclusion from the list is that the ‘top 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the kind of power and influence that defies stereotypes.’ Limitations of the traits approach There are two further limitations with this approach. First, there is bound to be some subjective judgement in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader. Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not always agreement on the most important. Even if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of future leaders. Although there is still some interest in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership. The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are certain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACH This approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any group engaged in a task. The functional approach views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects, and is affected by, the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. It focuses on the content of leadership. WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model Once a lower need has been satisfied, it no longer acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. Thus Maslow asserts that ‘a satisfied need is no longer a motivator’. Not necessarily a fixed order Although Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a reversal of the hierarchy, for example: Self-esteem may seem to be more important than love to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most loved is strong, confident or inspires respect. People seeking love try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. They  are not really seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of love needs. For some innately creative people the drive for creativity and self-actualisation may arise despite lack of satisfaction of more basic needs. Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only: for example, a person who has experienced chronic unemployment. Some people who have been deprived of love in early childhood may experience the permanent loss of love needs. A need which has continued to be satisfied over a long period of time may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to underestimate its effects, and regard food as rather an unimportant thing. Where people are dominated by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs. People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs. Maslow claims that the hierarchy is relatively universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individual’s motivational content in a particular culture. THE INDIVIDUAL Degrees of  satisfaction Maslow points out that a false impression may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need arises. He suggests that a more realistic description is in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction  along levels of the hierarchy. For example, arbitrary figures for the average person may be: satisfied 85 per cent in physiological needs; 70 per cent in safety needs; 50 per cent in love needs; 40 per cent in esteem needs; and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual emergence of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow subsequently modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually enhance these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rat her than only after their satisfaction. Evaluation of Maslow’s theory Based on Maslow’s theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction. Applications to the work situation However, there are a number of problems in relating Maslow’s theory to the work situation. These include the following: A useful basis  for evaluation People do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of people’s private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need. Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation. Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be applied to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people within the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance. Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still remains popular as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has drawn attention to a number of different motivators and stimulated study and research. The need hierarchy model provides a  useful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors used to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29 WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy Needs levels General rewards Organisational factors 1 Physiological Food, water, sex, sleep a. Pay b. Pleasant working conditions c. Cafeteria 2. Safety Safety, security, stability, protection a. Safe working conditions b. Company benefits c. Job security 3. Social Love, affection, belongingness a. Cohesive work group b. Friendly supervision c. Professional associations 4. Esteem Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, status a. Social recognition b. Job title c. High status job d. Feedback from the job itself 5. Self-actualisation Growth, advancement, creativity a. Challenging job b. Opportunities for creativity c. Achievement in work d. Advancement in the organisation Saunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslow’s theory remains watertight.  When prehistoric man first took shelter in a cave and lit a fire, he was satisfying his lowest – physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest – self-actualisation †¦The cave these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once we’ve got enough to feed, clothe and house our families money is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the desire for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work. Pyramid of employee commitment Revisiting and developing Maslow’s hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a ‘Performance Pyramid’. Safety/security – the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possible; Rewards – the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits; Affiliation – the intrinsic need for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisation; Growth – addressing the need for positive individual and organisational change to drive commitment; Work/life harmony – the drive to achieve a sense of fulfilment in balancing work and life responsibilities.